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Everything That Is Has Been Before and Will Be Again

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Concept that the universe and all existence is perpetually recurring

"Eternal recurrence" redirects here. For other uses, see Eternal Recurrence.

Eternal return (German: Ewige Wiederkunft; also known as eternal recurrence) is a concept that the universe and all existence and energy has been recurring, and will continue to recur an infinite number of times across infinite fourth dimension or space.

Classical artifact [edit]

In ancient Greece, the concept of eternal return was most prominently associated with Stoicism, the school of philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium, although there are hints that the theory may in fact accept originated with Pythagoras. The rise of Christianity brought an stop to classical theories of eternal return, which were incompatible with Christian notions of free volition and conservancy.

Pythagoreanism [edit]

Co-ordinate to Porphyry, information technology was one of the teachings of Pythagoras (c. 570 – c. 495 BC) that "after certain specified periods, the same events occur again" and that "zippo was entirely new".[i] Eudemus of Rhodes also references this Pythagorean doctrine in his commentary on Aristotle'due south Physics. In a fragment preserved by Simplicius, Eudemus writes:[2]

One might raise the problem whether the same time recurs, as some say, or non. "The aforementioned" has many senses: the same in class seems to occur as do jump and winter and the other seasons and periods; similarly the same changes occur in course, for the sun performs its solstices and equinoxes and its other journeys. But if someone were to believe the Pythagoreans that numerically the aforementioned things recur, then I likewise will romance, belongings my staff, while yous sit in that location, and everything else will be the aforementioned, and information technology is plausible to say that the fourth dimension will be the same.

Stoicism [edit]

The Stoics, peradventure inspired by the Pythagoreans,[3] incorporated the theory of eternal recurrence into their natural philosophy. According to Stoic physics, the universe is periodically destroyed in an immense conflagration (ekpyrosis), so experiences a rebirth (palingenesis). These cycles go on for eternity, and the same events are exactly repeated in every cycle.[4] The Stoics may accept establish support for this doctrine in the concept of the Great Year,[5] the oldest known expression of which is found in Plato's Timaeus. Plato hypothesised that 1 complete cycle of time would be fulfilled when the sun, moon and planets all completed their various circuits and returned to their original positions.[6]

Sources differ as to whether the Stoics believed that the contents of each new universe would be one and the same with those of the previous universe, or simply so similar as to be indistinguishable.[seven] The quondam indicate of view was attributed to the Stoic Chrysippus (c. 279 – c. 206 BC) by Alexander of Aphrodisias, who wrote:[8]

They hold that after the conflagration nonetheless things come up to be again in the world numerically, so that even the same peculiarly qualified individual as earlier exists and comes to be again in that earth, every bit Chrysippus says in his books On the World.

On the other hand, Origen (c. 185 – c. 253 AD) characterises the Stoics as claiming that the contents of each bike will not be identical, but just indistinguishable:[9]

To avoid supposing that Socrates will live again, they say that it will be some one duplicate from Socrates, who will marry some ane indistinguishable from Xanthippe, and will exist defendant by men duplicate from Anytus and Meletus.

Origen as well records a heterodox version of the doctrine, noting that some Stoics propose that "there is a slight and very infinitesimal departure between i period and the events in the period before it".[10] This was probably non a widely-held belief, as information technology represents a denial of the deterministic viewpoint which stands at the heart of Stoic philosophy.[11]

Christian response [edit]

Christian authors attacked the doctrine of eternal recurrence on various grounds. Origen argued that the theory was incompatible with costless will (although he did allow the possibility of diverse and non-identical cycles).[12] Augustine of Hippo (354–430 Ad) objected to the fact that salvation was not possible in the Stoic scheme, arguing that even if a temporary happiness was attained, a soul could non be truly blessed if it was doomed to return again to misery.[xiii]

Augustine as well mentions "certain philosophers" who cite Ecclesiastes ane:ix–10 as bear witness of eternal return: "What is that which hath been? It is that which shall be. And what is that which is done? It is that which shall be done: and there is no new thing nether the sunday. Who can speak and say, Run across, this is new? It hath been already of former time, which was earlier united states of america." Augustine denies that this has reference to the recurrence of specific people, objects, and events, instead interpreting the passage in a more general sense. In back up of his argument, he appeals to scriptural passages such as Romans 6:nine, which affirms that Christ "being raised from the dead dieth no more".[13]

Friedrich Nietzsche [edit]

Eternal recurrence is one of the cardinal concepts of the philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900).[14] While the idea itself is not original to Nietzsche, his unique response to it gave new life to the theory, and speculation as to the correct estimation of Nietzsche'southward doctrine continues to this twenty-four hour period.

Precursors [edit]

The discovery of the laws of thermodynamics in the 19th century restarted the argue amid scientists and philosophers virtually the ultimate fate of the universe, which brought in its railroad train many questions near the nature of time.[15] Eduard von Hartmann argued that the universe'due south final land would be identical to the state in which it had begun; Eugen Dühring rejected this idea, challenge that it carried with it the necessary upshot that the universe would brainstorm again, and that the same forms would echo themselves eternally, a doctrine which Dühring viewed as dangerously pessimistic.[16] Johann Gustav Vogt [de], on the other paw, argued in favour of a cyclical system, additionally positing the spatial co-existence of an space number of identical worlds.[17] Louis Auguste Blanqui similarly claimed that in an infinite universe, every possible combination of forms must repeat itself eternally across both time and space.[18]

Nietzsche's conception [edit]

Nietzsche wrote that the concept of eternal return offset occurred to him at Lake Silvaplana, "beside a huge rock that towered aloft like a pyramid".[19]

Nietzsche may have drawn upon a number of sources in developing his own formulation of the theory. He had studied Pythagorean and Stoic philosophy,[20] was familiar with the works of gimmicky philosophers such equally Dühring and Vogt,[21] and may accept encountered references to Blanqui in a book by Friedrich Albert Lange.[22] He was also a fan of the author Heinrich Heine, ane of whose books contains a passage discussing the theory of eternal render.[20] Yet, Nietzsche claimed that the doctrine, equally it appears in his own works, struck him one twenty-four hour period as a sudden revelation, while walking beside Lake Silvaplana.[19]

The beginning published presentation of Nietzsche's version of the theory appears in The Gay Science, department 341, where it is proposed to the reader as a thought experiment:

What if some 24-hour interval or night a demon were to steal after you into your loneliest loneliness, and say to y'all, "This life as you now live it and have lived information technology, you will have to live once more and innumerable times more; and at that place will exist zilch new in it, merely every pain and every joy and every idea and sigh and everything unutterably small or great in your life volition have to return to you, all in the aforementioned succession and sequence ... Would you not throw yourself downwards and gnash your teeth and curse the demon who spoke thus? Or accept you once experienced a tremendous moment when you would have answered him: "You lot are a god and never accept I heard annihilation more than divine."[23]

Nietzsche expands upon this concept in the philosophical novel Thus Spoke Zarathustra, subsequently writing that eternal render was "the key idea of the work".[nineteen] In this novel, the titular Zarathustra is initially struck with horror at the thought that all things must recur eternally; ultimately, however, he overcomes his aversion to eternal render and embraces it as his well-nigh fervent want. In the penultimate chapter of the piece of work ("The Drunken Song"), Zarathustra declares: "All things are entangled, ensnared, enamored; if you always wanted one thing twice, if you always said, 'Y'all please me, happiness! Abide, moment!' and then you wanted all back ... For all joy wants—eternity."[24]

Interpretation [edit]

Martin Heidegger points out that Nietzsche'due south first mention of eternal recurrence in The Gay Scientific discipline presents this concept as a hypothetical question rather than postulating information technology as a fact. According to Heidegger, the significant point is the brunt imposed by the question of eternal recurrence, regardless of whether or not such a thing could possibly be true.[25] The concept of eternal recurrence appears similar to Nietzsche's concept of amor fati, which Nietzsche describes: "My formula for greatness in a man existence is amor fati: that one wants nothing to be dissimilar, not forward, not astern, not in all eternity. Non merely to acquit what is necessary, still less conceal it […] but love information technology."[26] [27]

On the other hand, Nietzsche's posthumously published notebooks contain an attempt at a logical proof of eternal return, which is often adduced in support of the claim that Nietzsche believed in the theory every bit a existent possibility.[27] The proof is based upon the premise that the universe is space in duration, but contains a finite quantity of energy. This being the case, all matter in the universe must laissez passer through a finite number of combinations, and each series of combinations must eventually repeat in the aforementioned order, thereby creating "a circular movement of absolutely identical series".[28] However, scholars such every bit Neil Sinhababu and Kuong Un Teng have suggested that the reason this textile remained unpublished was because Nietzsche himself was unconvinced that his argument would hold upwardly to scrutiny.[27] [note 1]

A third possibility is that Nietzsche was attempting to create a new ethical standard by which people should estimate their own behaviour.[30] In one of his unpublished notes, Nietzsche writes: "The question which thou wilt have to reply before every deed that thou doest: 'is this such a deed equally I am prepared to perform an incalculable number of times?' is the best ballast."[31] Taken in this sense, the doctrine has been seen as comparable to the categorical imperative of Immanuel Kant.[32] Once again, however, the objection is raised that no such ethical imperative appears in any of Nietzsche's published writings,[30] and this interpretation is therefore rejected by almost modern scholars.[27]

P. D. Ouspensky [edit]

Russian esotericist P. D. Ouspensky (1878–1947) believed in the literal truth of eternal recurrence. As a child, he had been prone to bright sensations of déjà vu,[33] and when he encountered the theory of eternal return in the writings of Nietzsche, it occurred to him that this was a possible caption for his experiences.[34] He afterwards explored the idea in his semi-autobiographical novel, Strange Life of Ivan Osokin.

In this story, Ivan Osokin implores a wizard to send him dorsum to his childhood and give him the chance to alive his life over again. The magician obliges, but warns Ivan that he volition be unable to right whatever of his mistakes. This turns out to be the case; although Ivan ever knows in advance what the outcome of his actions volition be, he is unable to keep himself from repeating those deportment. Having re-lived his life up to the point of his chat with the magician, Ivan asks in despair whether there is any manner of irresolute the past. The magician answers that he must first change himself; if he works on improving his character, he may take a adventure of making amend decisions next time around.

The earliest version of the novel, still, did not include the magician,[35] and ended on "a totally pessimistic notation".[36] The revolution in Ouspensky's thoughts on recurrence – the idea that change is possible – took place later on he became a disciple of the mystic George Gurdjieff, who taught that a person could accomplish a higher state of consciousness through a system of strict self-discipline. When Ouspensky asked about eternal recurrence, Gurdjieff told him:[37]

This idea of repetition ... is non the full and absolute truth, merely information technology is the nearest possible approximation of the truth ... And if you understand why I do non speak of this, y'all will be still nearer to it. What is the use of a man knowing almost recurrence if he is not conscious of information technology and if he himself does not change? ... Noesis about the repetition of lives volition add zippo for a homo ... if he does not strive to change himself in order to escape this repetition. But if he changes something essential in himself, that is, if he attains something, this cannot be lost.

Ouspensky incorporated this idea into his after writings. In A New Model of the Universe, he argued against Nietzsche'south proof of the mathematical necessity of eternal repetition, claiming that a large enough quantity of matter would be capable of an infinite number of possible combinations. According to Ouspensky, everyone is reborn again into the aforementioned life at the moment of their death, and many people volition indeed continue to live the exact same lives for eternity, only information technology is besides possible to break the bicycle and enter into a new plane of existence.[38]

Science and mathematics [edit]

The Poincaré recurrence theorem states that certain dynamical systems, such as particles of gas in a sealed container, will return infinitely often to a country arbitrarily close to their original land.[39] [40] The theorem, offset avant-garde past Henri Poincaré in 1890, remains influential, and is today the basis of ergodic theory.[41] Attempts take been made to show or disprove the possibility of Poincaré recurrence in a system the size of a milky way or a universe.[39] [41]

See also [edit]

  • Fractals
  • Endless knot – Decorative knot
  • Eureka: A Prose Poem – Lengthy non-fiction work by American author Edgar Allan Poe
  • Historic recurrence – Repetition of similar events in history
  • Mandala – Spiritual and ritual symbol in Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism
  • Möbius strip – Non-orientable surface with one edge
  • Ouroboros – Symbolic serpent with its tail in its rima oris
  • Wheel of time – Religious and philosophical concept of cyclical, repeating epochs or ages

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ I rebuttal of Nietzsche's theory, put forward by his gimmicky Georg Simmel, is summarised by Walter Kaufmann equally follows: "Even if there were exceedingly few things in a finite space in an infinite time, they would not have to repeat in the same configurations. Suppose there were iii wheels of equal size, rotating on the same axis, one betoken marked on the circumference of each cycle, and these 3 points lined up in one directly line. If the 2nd wheel rotated twice as fast every bit the first, and if the speed of the third wheel was 1/π of the speed of the first, the initial line-upward would never recur."[29]

References [edit]

  1. ^ "Porphyry, Life of Pythagoras (§19)". Translated past Kenneth Sylvan Guthrie. 1920. Hosted at the Tertullian Project.
  2. ^ Simplicius: On Aristotle'southward Physics iv.ane-5, 10-14 . Translated past J. O. Urmson. Cornell Academy Press. 1992. p. 142. ISBN0-8014-2817-3.
  3. ^ Zeller, Eduard (1880). The Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics. Translated by Oswald J. Reichel. London: Longmans, Green and Co. pp. 166–vii.
  4. ^ Sellers, John (2006). Stoicism . Acumen. p. 99. ISBN978-1-84465-053-8.
  5. ^ White, Michael J. (2003). "Stoic Natural Philosophy (Physics and Cosmology)". In Inwood, Brad (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to the Stoics. Cambridge Academy Press. pp. 141–2. ISBN0-521-77985-5.
  6. ^ Plato, Timaeus 39d.
  7. ^ "Stoicism: Concrete Theory". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . Retrieved 11 December 2021.
  8. ^ Salles, Ricardo (2005). "On the Individuation of Times and Events in Orthodox Stoicism". In Salles, Ricardo (ed.). Metaphysics, Soul, and Ethics in Ancient Thought. Clarendon Press. p. 107. ISBN0-19-926130-X.
  9. ^ Origen: Contra Celsum. Translated by Henry Chadwick. Cambridge University Printing. 1965. p. 238 (volume IV, department 68).
  10. ^ Chadwick 1965, pp. 279–fourscore (volume V, department 20).
  11. ^ White 2003, p. 143
  12. ^ Origen: On First Principles . Translated by G. W. Butterworth. Harper & Row. 1966. pp. 87–viii (book 2, chapter 3, section four).
  13. ^ a b Augustine: The Urban center of God Confronting the Pagans . Translated by R. W. Dyson. Cambridge Academy Press. 1998. pp. 516–vii (volume XII, affiliate 14).
  14. ^ Anderson, R. Lanier (17 March 2017). "Friedrich Nietzsche". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
  15. ^ D'Iorio, Paolo (2014). "The Eternal Return: Genesis and Estimation". Lexicon Philosophicum (2): 66–67. doi:10.19283/lph-20142.414.
  16. ^ D'Iorio 2014, pp. 68–74
  17. ^ D'Iorio 2014, p. 42–43
  18. ^ "Eternity by the Stars (1872)". The Blanqui Archive.
  19. ^ a b c Nietzsche, Friedrich (1911). Ecce Homo. Translated by Anthony Yard. Ludovici. Macmillan. p. 96.
  20. ^ a b Kaufmann, Walter A. (1974). Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist (4th ed.). Princeton University Printing. pp. 317–319.
  21. ^ D'Iorio 2014, p. 43, 74
  22. ^ Fouillée, Alfred (1909). "Note sur Nietzsche et Lange: 'le retour éternel'". Revue philosophique de la France et de l'étranger (in French). 67: 519–525.
  23. ^ Schacht, Richard (2001). Nietzsche's Postmoralism: Essays on Nietzsche's Prelude to Philosophy's Future. Cambridge University Press. p. 237. ISBN978-0-521-64085-five.
  24. ^ Kaufmann, Walter, ed. (1954). The Portable Nietzsche . The Viking Press. p. 435.
  25. ^ Heidegger, Martin (1984). Nietzsche, Book II: The Eternal Recurrence of the Same. Translated by David Farrell Krell. New York: Harper and Row. p. 25.
  26. ^ Nietzsche, Frederich. Kaufmann, Walter, trans. Basic Writings of Nietzsche. Modern Library (November 28, 2000). ISBN 978-0679783398 p. 714
  27. ^ a b c d Sinhababu, Neil; Kuong, United nations Teng (2019). "Loving the Eternal Recurrence". The Journal of Nietzsche Studies. 50 (1): 106–124. doi:10.5325/jnietstud.50.ane.0106.
  28. ^ Ludovici, Anthony Grand., ed. (1913). Friedrich Nietzsche: The Will to Power. Vol. II. §1066 – via Project Gutenberg.
  29. ^ Kaufmann 1974, p. 327
  30. ^ a b Oger, Eric (1997). "The Eternal Return every bit Crucial Test". Journal of Nietzsche Studies (14): 4–7. JSTOR 20717674.
  31. ^ Ludovici, Anthony 1000., ed. (1911). "The Eternal Recurrence". Friedrich Nietzsche: The Twilight of the Idols. §28 – via Project Gutenberg.
  32. ^ Kaufmann 1974, pp. 22–23
  33. ^ Webb, James (1980). The Harmonious Circle. J. P. Putnam'south Sons. p. 96. ISBN0-399-11465-3.
  34. ^ Wilson, Colin (2005). The Foreign Life of P. D. Ouspensky. Aeon Books. p. 13. ISBN1-904658-25-3.
  35. ^ Webb 1980, pp. 452–453
  36. ^ Wilson 2005, p. 73
  37. ^ Ouspensky, P. D. (1950). In Search of the Miraculous. Routledge and Kegan Paul Express. p. 250.
  38. ^ Ouspensky, P. D. (1938). "Eternal Recurrence and the Laws of Manu". A New Model of the Universe (3rd ed.). Routledge and Kegan Paul Limited. pp. 464–513.
  39. ^ a b Tipler, Frank J. (1980). "General Relativity and the Eternal Return". Essays in General Relativity: A Festschrift for Abraham Taub. Bookish Press. pp. 21–22. ISBN978-1-4832-7362-4.
  40. ^ Sinai, VA. One thousand. (1976). Introduction to Ergodic Theory. Translated by V. Scheffer. Princeton Academy Press. p. 8. ISBN0-691-08182-4.
  41. ^ a b de Gosson, Maurice A. (June 2018). "The Symplectic Camel and Poincaré Superrecurrence: Open Problems". Entropy. 20 (7). doi:10.3390/e20070499.

Farther reading

  • Hatab, Lawrence J. (2005). Nietzsche'due south Life Sentence: Coming to Terms with Eternal Recurrence. New York: Routledge. ISBN0-415-96758-9.
  • Lukacher, Ned (1998). Time-Fetishes: The Secret History of Eternal Recurrence. Durham, North.C.: Knuckles University Press. ISBN0-8223-2253-half-dozen.
  • Magnus, Bernd (1978). Nietzsche's Existential Imperative. Bloomington: Indiana University Printing. ISBN0-253-34062-4.

External links [edit]

  • Quotations related to Eternal return at Wikiquote

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eternal_return

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